The British finally evacuated New York City on 25 November 1783. General George Washington and New York Governor George Clinton rode into the city together, marking the end of nearly seven years of British occupation. …
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Presidential Qualifications: The Natural-Born Citizen Requirement
When the Constitutional Convention considered the office of the President of the United States, all of the delegates naturally presumed that George Washington would be the only logical choice to fill the position. Because of …
The Antifederalists’ Victory: Implementing Their Constitution
Historians have long described the differences between Federalists and Antifederalists, often attributing the latter’s failure to their inability to offer a single viable alternative to the proposed Constitution. Yet, from a broader perspective, many …
Americans’ Spectrum of Government: Avoiding Scylla and Charybdis
Americans during the Revolutionary era were intently interested in the nature of government and how best to preserve liberty. From 1763 to 1800, public debate over these issues was intense and wide-ranging. Halfway through this …
The Bill of Rights Delayed: A 150-Year Hiatus
In September 1789, the first federal Congress proposed twelve amendments to the Constitution. Article V of the Constitution requires the approval of three-fourths of the states to adopt an amendment. Within a year of Congress’ …
An Old Man, but a Young Gardener
As we happily enjoy the return of springlike weather, many of us think about planting gardens. At this time, it’s pleasing to remember Jefferson’s fondness for gardening so thoughtfully expressed to his old friend Charles …
Dueling Preambles: Incorporating the Declaration of Independence into the Constitution
After strenuously opposing amendments to the Constitution during the ratification debate, James Madison notified his fellow members of the U.S. House of Representatives on 4 May 1789 that in three weeks he intended to “bring …
Locating the Bill of Rights: Congress Debates the Placement of Amendments to the Constitution
Article V of the Constitution outlines the process for proposing and ratifying amendments. Amendments can only be proposed by either a two-thirds vote of both houses of Congress or by a constitutional convention, which Congress …
America’s First Proposed Federal Tariff: The Imposts of 1781 and 1783
Americans’ experience under British rule made them deeply suspicious of granting tax power to a centralized government. Parliament’s repeated attempts to tax its American colonies without representation had been a driving force in the movement …
Identifying the Federal Farmer: Unravelling the Mystery of an Antifederalist Treasure
Much of the debate over ratifying the Constitution took place in the print media—newspapers, broadsides, pamphlets, and magazines. Many of the articles written by Federalists and Antifederalists appeared anonymously. The frequent use of pseudonyms aided …